Date of the first record

The date of the first documented record of the species occurrence in a country/country region.
Date fields usage example:

Date to be specifiedDate FromDate To
Exact 198519851985
18th century17011800
before 1700 1700
after 20012001 

Environmental position

Environment(s) occupied by a species throughout its life cycle.

OPTIONS:

Biofouling. Assemblage of organisms on wetted artificial substrates.

Commensal. An organism in a symbiotic relationship, in which one benefits while the other is not adversely affected.

Demersal. Synonyms: hyperbenthic, benthopelagic, nektobenthic. An organism living at, in or near the bottom of the sea, but having the ability to swim.

Ectoparasite. A parasite living on the surface of its host.

Endoparasite. A parasite living within the organs or tissues of its host.

Epifaunal. Synonym: epibenthic. An animal inhabiting the surface of the seabed, submerged plants and animals.

Epilithic. An organism living on the surface of rock or other hard inorganic substrata.

Epiphytic. An organism living on the surface of a plant, non-parasitic.

Epizoic. An organism living on the surface of an animal, non-parasitic.

Infaunal. Synonym: endobenthic. An animal living within the seabed sediments.

Interstitial. An organism (< 1 mm) living in the spaces between sediment particles.

Lithotomous. An organism burrowing into rock.

Neustonic. An organism living on (epineuston) or under (hyponeuston) the surface film of water bodies.

Pelagic. An organism inhabiting the water column.

Pleustonic. An organism inhabiting the water surface due to their own buoyancy, normally positioned partly in the water and partly in the air.

Habitat type

Estuary. River mouth, transition zone between riverine and marine environments, subject to influences from both.

Lagoon. Shallow, enclosed water body separated from the sea by barrier islands, narrow spit or reefs.

Offshore. Areas located at least 50 nautical miles from the shore.

Open coast. A coast not sheltered from the sea.

Strait/Sound. Channels between the mainland and an island or between two islands which are open at both ends to the open coast (it does not refer to similar features or narrows within marine inlets).

Sheltered coastal area. Coastal area partly surrounded by land (e.g., bay, inlet, fjord).

Ports. A location on a coast or shore containing one or more harbours where ships can dock and transfer people or cargo to or from land.

Port vicinity. The area near a port where ballast water operations may occur, including areas where vessels may conduct ballast water discharge or uptake operations when approaching a port or leaving it, e.g., port approaches, anchorage areas and designated ballast water exchange areas. The dimension is port specific.

Marina. A specially designed harbour for pleasure craft and small boats.

Aquaculture sites. Areas set out for the purpose of farming aquatic organisms.

Marine Protected Area (MPA). Defined marine area where natural resources are given greater protection than the surrounding waters. Different categories exist depending on the level of protection afforded by legislation.

Migration pattern

Diurnal. Movements between alternative habitats over day and night, e.g. vertical migration.

Life-time. One time migration between different habitats during the life cycle, e.g. anadromus migration.

Not relevant. No evidence of any life history cycle stages to migrate.

Seasonal. Movements between alternative habitats during a specific time of a year (e.g., spawning and feeding migrations).

Pathway / Vector

Pathway

A pathway is the route a NIS takes to enter or spread through a non-native ecosystem e.g. vessels. Each pathway may have a number of vectors.

Vector

A vector is a transfer mechanism and is the physical means by which species are transported from one geographic region to another. More than one vector within a pathway may be involved in a transfer of species.

Pathways and vectors included:
PathwayVector
Aquarium tradeIntentional organism release
Transported water
Waste discharge
Culture activitiesAquaculture equipment
Associated water & packaging material
Intercontinental stock movement
Regional stock movement
Unintentional release & escapees
Leisure activitiesAngling catch
Cultural releases
Live bait
Live souvenirs
Sport equipment
Stocking for angling
Waste discharge
Live food tradeIntentional organism release
Transported water
Waste discharge
ManagementBiological habitat management
Construction equipment
Construction materials
Release for biological control
Natural spread from neighboring countriesOther natural vectors
Water currents
Other canalsCanal de Midi (linking the Bay of Biscay with the Mediterranean Sea)
Kiel Canal (linking the North Sea with the Baltic)
Northern waterway (linking the Baltic with the Ponto-Caspian region through Volga river canal system)
Rhone waterway (linking the North Sea with the Mediterranean)
Southern waterway (linking the North Sea with the Black Sea through Danube river canal system)
Central waterway (linking the Baltic Sea with the Black Sea through the Dnieper river canal system)
Other waterways
Irrigation canals
Research and educationGear movement
Intentional releases
Unintentional release & escapees
Waste discharge
Suez Canal 
VesselsAnchor and anchor chain
Ballast tank sediments
Ballast water
Ship’s hull
Sea chest
Others
Wild fisheriesDiscard of by-catch
Fishing gear
Live bait release
Live packaging material
Processed live material
Stock movements
Transported water

Pathway / Vector – Levels of certainty:
LevelCriteriaExamples
Direct evidenceThe species was actually found associated with the specific vector(s) of a pathway at the time of introduction to a particular locality within a country/country region.Documented evidence of an introduction: release to the wild for stocking or biological control; escape/release of live food; import of cultured species and documented findings of their associate organisms, parasites and diseases on transmission; appearance of organisms by hull fouling, ballast water discharge sampling or other ship vectors documented upon an arrival with appropriate scientific methods.
Very likelyThe species appears for the first time in a locality where a single pathway/vector(s) is known to operate and where there is no other explanation that can be argued for its presence except by this likely pathway/vector(s).A highly localized distribution of a species in an area adjacent to an isolated port or other locality where the only pathway is vessels and its vector(s) (ballast water, hull fouling, etc). This often involves geographically discontinuous distributions. It may be a continuous spread as in case of introduction by canals or by natural means. The conclusion is deduced from the analysis of the invasion event and species distribution patterns.
PossibleThe species cannot be convincingly ascribed to a single pathway, but is known to be introduced by this pathway(s) elsewhere.There may be more than one pathway involved in the introduction within a country/country region. Arrival of a species known to have taken place elsewhere by the same pathway(s) which operates in an area. A conclusion is made by expert judgment based on pathways currently or historically present.
UnknownInvasion of a given alien species cannot be clearly explained.Where no rational explanation for the appearance of a species in a given country/region.

Population status

Population status (the lowest level of certainty):

Unknown. There is no reliable information on population status of a species.
Established. A species is known to form a reproducing population in a wild.
Not established. There is no evidence of a species’ reproducing population in a wild.

Population status (the moderate level of certainty):
Extinct/no recent record. There are old records where a species was recorded but have not been seen in the same region since.
Rare/single record. There are only casual observations or a single record of a species'presence available.
Common. A species with successfully reproducing populations in an open ecosystem, which are unlikely to be eliminated by man or natural causes. Not dominating native communities.
Abundant. A species with successfully reproducing populations in an open ecosystem, which are unlikely to be eliminated by man or natural causes. Locally dominating native communities.
Very abundant. A species with successfully reproducing populations in an open ecosystem, which are unlikely to be eliminated by man or natural causes. Largely dominating native communities.
Outbreak. A species undergoing pulse-like, short-term (days to few months) exponential population growth during which they have an adverse effect on one or more of the following: biological diversity, ecosystem functioning, socio-economic values and human health.

Recipient region

The country/region for which introduction is recorded.

References.



References should follow the standard of Biological invasions:


Journal article
Gamelin FX, Baquet G, Berthoin S, Thevenet D, Nourry C, Nottin S, Bosquet L (2009) Effect of high intensity intermittent training on heart rate variability in prepubescent children. Eur J Appl Physiol 105:731-738. doi: 10.1007/s00421-008-0955-8
Ideally, the names of all authors should be provided, but the usage of “et al” in long author lists will also be accepted:
Smith J, Jones M Jr, Houghton L et al (1999) Future of health insurance. N Engl J Med 965:325–329


Article by DOI


Slifka MK, Whitton JL (2000) Clinical implications of dysregulated cytokine production. J Mol Med. doi:10.1007/s001090000086


Book
South J, Blass B (2001) The future of modern genomics. Blackwell, London


Book chapter
Brown B, Aaron M (2001) The politics of nature. In: Smith J (ed) The rise of modern genomics, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York, pp 230-257


Online document
Cartwright J (2007) Big stars have weather too. IOP Publishing PhysicsWeb. http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/11/6/16/1. Accessed 26 June 2007


Dissertation
Trent JW (1975) Experimental acute renal failure. Dissertation, University of California

Reproductive duration

Long. Breeds in one or more discrete periods, each longer than three months.

Medium. Breeds in one or more discrete periods, each longer than a week and less than three months.

Short. Breeds in one or more discrete periods within a week.

Reproductive seasonality

Months for a species known to reproduce in the invaded site.

Salinity range

The exact salinity range if known (psu), else salinity zone(s) according to the Venice system:
1. Limnetic [<0.5psu]
2. β-Oligohaline [0.5-3psu]
3. α-Oligohaline [3-5psu]
4. β-Mesohaline [5-10psu]
5. α-Mesohaline [10-18psu]
6. Polymixohaline [18-30psu]
7. Euhaline [30-40psu]
8. Hypersaline [>40psu]

Source region

The area the species was introduced from to the recipient country/country region. Depending on the information availability may be ascribed to a particular locality (e.g. port), a country, a LME or a larger Ocean region.
CAUTION: in many cases the source area will be not the same as the area of native origin which is defined in the SPECIES block of the database.

Species status

Non-indigenous species. Non-indigenous species (synonyms: alien, exotic, non-native, allochthonous, introduced) are species, subspecies or lower taxa (such as a variety, form) introduced outside of their natural range (past or present) and outside of their natural dispersal potential. This includes any propagule of a NIS, such as a gamete, seed or resting spore, a gravid female or a pair of individuals of different sexes (in sexual reproduction), or a vegetative reproductive organ and section of tissue (in asexual reproduction), which might survive, reproduce and subsequently form a population. It also includes hybrids between an alien species and an indigenous species, fertile polyploid organisms and artificially hybridized species irrespective of their natural range or dispersal potential.

Cryptogenic. Cryptogenic species are such species which cannot be reliably demonstrated as being either introduced or native. In some cases the true origin of a species remains obscure because of either insufficient taxonomic knowledge or due to a lack of records from the time they became introduced, or for other reasons.

Temperature range

Indicate min. and max. annual temperature range in the area where a species is known to maintain an established (reproducing) population.

Wave exposure

Exposed. Open coastline facing prevailing wind and receiving both wind-driven waves and swell.

Semi exposed. Generally open coasts facing away from prevailing winds or sheltered by offshore reefs/structures.

Sheltered. Coasts with a restricted fetch (<20 km) and lacking persistent swell.

Zonation

Ecological zone(s) occupied by a species throughout its life cycle.

Benthic - Bathyal. Synonym: continental slope. The seafloor between the edge of the continental shelf and abyssal plain (200-4000 m).

Benthic - Littoral. Synonym: intertidal. The shore between the high and low water marks.

Benthic - Sublittoral beyond photic zone. Synonym: lower circalittoral. The lower part of the continental shelf, where photosynthesis cannot take place.

Benthic - Sublittoral within photic zone. Synonyms: subtidal, infralittoral. The shallow part of sublittoral where photosynthesis can occur.

Benthic - Supralittoral. Synonyms: splash zone, spray zone, supratidal zone. The area above the spring high tide line, subject spray or splash.

Pelagic - Littoral. Water mass within littoral zone.

Pelagic - Neritic. Water mass above the continental shelf.

Pelagic - Offshore. Synonym: oceanic. Water mass beyond the continental shelf.

Public domain: Introduction event account

Species Magallana gigas  
Date of the first record (?) 1877

References (not structured):
Wilkins NP (1989) Ponds, passes and parcs: aquaculture in Victorian Ireland. Glendale Press, Sandycove, Co Dublin, 352pp.
Utting SD Spencer BE (1992)Introductions of marine bivalve molluscs into the United Kingdom -case histories. ICES Mar. Sci. Symp., 194: 84-91.

Comments:
Initially introduced for trial cultivation from France as half-grown oysters as Portugese oysters (Crassostrea angulata) but were apparently imported to Britain much later, in 1926. In 1969 imports of Canadian stock of Crassostrea gigas were introduced having been quarantined in Conwy, North Wales in 1965, 1972 and again then from Washington State in 1980. In 1993 Pacific oysters were imported from France.
Recipient region (?) Country: Ireland
LME: 24. Celtic-Biscay Shelf
LME sub-region: Celtic seas

References (not structured):
Utting SD Spencer BE (1992) Introductions of marine bivalve molluscs into the United Kingdom -case histories. ICES Mar. Sci. Symp., 194: 84-91.

Comments:
The quarantined oysters were introduced to Cork harbour in 1969. Several sites were developed for cultivation within the decade on all coasts.
Source region (?) Country: France
Country: United Kingdom (Britain)
--> LME: 24. Celtic-Biscay Shelf; LME sub-region: Celtic seas

References (not structured):
Wilkins NP (1989) Ponds, passes and parcs: aquaculture in Victorian Ireland. Glendale Press, Sandycove, Co Dublin, 352pp.

Comments:
Sourced from France in the late 1800s and much later from Britain in 1969 and obtained from the Ministry Laboratory in Conwy, North Wales following quarantine. The original source of this broodstock was from British Columbia. In 1993 oysters were imported from France.
Pathway / Vector (?) Level of certainty: Direct evidence

Pathway: Culture activities
Vector: Regional stock movement

References (not structured):
Wilkins NP (1989) Ponds, passes and parcs: aquaculture in Victorian Ireland. Glendale Press, Sandycove, Co Dublin, 352pp.

Comments:
Originally introduced to selected sites about the Irish coast including ponds in Ballinakill Bay, which since still remain unused.
Habitat type (?) Aquaculture sites
Estuary
Lagoon
Marina
Port vicinity
Sheltered coastal area

References (not structured):
Parsons J (1974) Advantages in tray cultivation of pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) in Strangford Lough, N. Ireland. Aquaculture 3(3): 221-229.

Comments:
It is cultivated in meshed bags held on trestles is the principle form of cultivation. Some may be grown on the lower shore. Where recruitment takes place oysters cement themselves to shell, stones and boulders.
Wave exposure (?) Sheltered

Comments:
Cultivated in sheltered sites on shore with low gradients.
Salinity range (?) Venice system:
6. Polymixohaline [18-30psu]
7. Euhaline [30-40psu]

References (not structured):
Miossec L, Le Deuff R‐M, Goulletquer P (2009) Alien species alert: Crassostrea gigas (Pacific oyster). ICES Cooperative Research Report No. 299. 42 pp.

Comments:
It can endure short periods of low salinity.
Temperature range (?) Not entered
Zonation / Substratum (?) Benthic:
Littoral (Benthic)
Sublittoral beyond photic zone
Sublittoral within photic zone
Substratum:
Artificial (manmade)
Biogenic (living or nonliving)
Hard (cobbles to bedrock)

References (not structured):
Miossec L, Le Deuff R‐M, Goulletquer P (2009) Alien species alert: Crassostrea gigas (Pacific oyster). ICES Cooperative Research Report No. 299. 42 pp.

Comments:
Can attach to the hulls of vessels, floating pontoons and a wide range of submerged structures as well as to shells, stones and bedrock.
Reproductive duration (?)Not entered
Reproductive seasonality (?) Jul.
Aug.

References (not structured):
Steele S, Mulcahy MF (1999) Gameteogenesis of the oyster Crassostrea gigas in southern Ireland. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 79(4): 673-686.
Minchin D (1993) Possible influence of increases in mean sea temperature on Irish marine fauna and fisheries. Biogeography of Ireland; past, present, and future. M.J. Costello (ed). Occasional Publications of the Irish Biogeographical Society, No. 2, 113-125.

Comments:
Spawning occurs during warm summers and not at all sites where oysters are in cultivation. Spawning was first noticed in the late 1980s.
Migration pattern (?) Unknown

Comments:
Oysters cement themselves to the substrate.
Population status (?) Common (Moderate level of certainty)

References (not structured):
Minchin D, Nunn J (2013) Rapid assessment of marinas for invasive alien species in Northern Ireland. A report undertaken for the Northern Ireland Environment Agency, Belfast. 96pp.
Lynch S, Carlsson J, Reilly AO, Cotter E, Culloty SC (2012) A previously undescribed ostreid herpes virus 1 (OsHV-q) genotype detected in the pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, in Ireland. Parasitology. doi:10.1017/S0031182012000881
Cotter E, Malham SK, O'Keeffe S, Lynch SA, Latchford JW, King JW, Beaumont AR, Culloty SC (2010)Summer mortality of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, in the Irish Sea: The influence of growth, biochemistry and gametogenesis. AQuaculture 303: 8-21.
Holmes JMC, Minchin D (1995) Two exotic copepods imported into Ireland with the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg). The Irish Naturalists’ Journal, 25: 17-20.
Minchin D (1993) Possible influence of increases in mean sea temperature on Irish marine fauna and fisheries. Biogeography of Ireland; past, present, and future. M.J. Costello (ed). Occasional Publications of the Irish Biogeographical Society, No. 2, 113-125.

Comments:
There were three phases of introduction one with the 'Portuguese' oyster from 1877 which did not reproduce in Irish waters but when imported as half-grown oysters could be laid on the shore until of market size. The second phase involved the sowing of seed oysters that had undergone a rigorous quarantine procedure in North Wales on which the main oyster production for Ireland evolved. Then in January 1993 the free-movement enabled unquarantined oysters to be freely distributed in Europe. Subsequently Pacific oysters in Ireland had for the first time demonstrated the summer mortality syndrome now identified as an ostreid herpes virus (OsHV-1). In addition two copeods were introduced with the imports from France. This oyster is locally recruiting in variable numbers each year in bays on all coasts.
Species status (?) Non-indigenous species

References (not structured):
Menzel RW (1974). Portuguese and Japanese oysters are the same species. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 31: 453-456.
O'Foighil D, Gaffney PM, Wilbur AE, Hilbisch TJ (1998) Mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene sequences support an Asian origin for the Portuguese oyster Crassostrea angulata. Mar. Biol. 131:497-503.

Comments:
All indications suggest that G. angulata and G. gigas are different forms of the same species with G. angulata possibly originating from Taiwan.
Created byDan Minchin, 2011-11-09
Last update byDan Minchin, 2013-12-06
Contributors
Added by Dan Minchin, 2011-11-09
Edited by Dan Minchin, 2013-10-12
Edited by Dan Minchin, 2013-10-21
Edited by Dan Minchin, 2013-11-04
Edited by Dan Minchin, 2013-11-05
Edited by Dan Minchin, 2013-12-06

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